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  • An Introduction to the Akkadian Civilization

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    The Akkadians were a group of Semitic people from the Arabian Peninsula at the time the great Sumerian city-states were flourishing. These people eventually migrated north, where they encountered the Sumerians. Around 2350 BC, an Akkadian military leader, Sargon (Sharukkin-“the rightful ruler”) conquered the Sumerian city-states and built an Akkadian Empire, creating the world’s first empire. It included most of Sumer and stretched as far as Lebanon, Syria, Anatolia, and western Iran. Akkad (from Agade) was the capital, which became the basis for the name of the people and of the language.

    The Akkadian Empire had a centralized government under the authority of the king, the royal court, and the high class of priests. Sargon was mostly responsible for this development. A strong economy was the empire’s foundation and Sargon and his court were in the middle of the economic activity, unlike in Sumer, where the priests had more say on matters economic. Their economy was heavily dependent on agriculture; their farmlands were very productive because of an efficient system of irrigation. The productivity of their farmlands enabled the empire’s population to increase. Their agricultural products were abundant, but the empire was short on everything else. Timber, metal ores, and building stones had to be imported. Sargon’s military conquests, however, expanded the boundaries of the empire, eventually including the regions that were sources of these precious commodities. The king brought great wealth to the empire, which spawned a large number of bureaucrats and administrators, in the process creating the first bureaucratic organization. This bureaucracy enabled him to rule the empire more efficiently.

    The Akkadian civilization was an extension of the Sumerian civilization; their society was similar to the Sumerians’. The status of women generally was similar to that of the women in Sumer, although the legend of the “sacred female” started during this period. Sargon even appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess to the goddess Inanna. Incidentally, Enheduanna may have been the world’s first published poet. Her poems, extolling gods and goddess, are estimated to be around 4300 years old.

    Sumerian gods and goddesses were given Akkadian names. However, the role of temple priests and priestesses were diminished. Sargon became the mediator between the people and their gods and goddesses. These gods and goddesses had human form, and had human qualities; they could be foolish, intelligent, shy, humorous, jealous, or angry. These deities were derived from nature, which was understandable considering that life in Mesopotamia was controlled by nature. In trying to understand nature, they gave human shapes to the forces of nature. Thus, they had An, the god of sky, Enlil, the god of air, Nanna, the moon god, and Utu the sun god. The Mesopotamians believed that these gods created the universe and everything it contained, including, of course, humans. They also believed that men and women were created by gods to serve the gods-to make sacrifices to them, to clothe them, to honor and obey them. This religion, however, did not have any laws about ethics or morality. Good and evil were left for people to discover on their own. Humanity-according to early Mesopotamians-exists to serve the gods, who were responsible for the smooth running of the affairs of humanity and of the world in general. They ruled the world through their representative; in Akkadian civilization, this meant Sargon.

    Besides having a comparatively sophisticated agriculture that included irrigation and the use of plows, Akkadians had also discovered a method of casting bronze. They also use mud bricks in building houses and temples, and had an advanced pottery industry.

    Formal education during this era was practical and aimed primarily to train priests and scribes. Education started from basic reading, writing, and religion, then higher learning in law, medicine, and astrology. Upper class youths were usually prepared to become scribes, ranging from copyists to librarians to teachers. Excavations also revealed that schools for priests were as numerous as temples, indicating not only the importance of priests in Mesopotamian society, but also the thoroughness of priestly training.

    Art of the Mesopotamian people including Akkadians had during this period attained a high degree of refinement; a bronze head of a king, which scholars think may be of Sargon, was excavated in Nineveh (ancient capital of Assyrian empire). It is thought to be around 2300 to 2200 BC. This head is considered as one of the great masterpieces of ancient art. Another example is the two cylinder seals that date back to the time of Sargon, which are among the most beautiful examples of its kind. A relief sculpture of Naram-Sin (Sargon’s grandson) shows him in one of his military triumphs. Many clay tablets that were excavated in various places in Iraq contained the ancient Mesopotamians’ literature, mostly poems and hymns to their gods and goddesses.

    Sargon reigned for fifty-six years (from 2335 to 2279 BC) and his son Rimush, who was later killed in a palace revolt, succeeded him. Another son, Manishtushu was also killed in another palace revolt. The last king in the Akkadian Dynasty, which lasted about a century, was Naram-Sin, and was the first to claim kingship by divine right. His downfall, and that of the whole empire, was thought to be due to the invading armies from the east, called Gutians. Recent findings however found evidence that a drought that lasted for 300 years was the main cause of the empire’s demise.

    Scientists discovered evidence that the downfall of the Akkadian Empire started around 2200 BC. This civilization was heavily dependent on agriculture; a drought that occurred during this period severely weakened production, and subsequently caused the decline of the empire. People fled and moved south where agriculture was still sustainable. There was a revival of Sumerians’ former glory, but it did not last long. Eventually, new conquerors followed the footsteps of Sargon, and united the city-states of the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia).

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    Source by Gerry Sitjar

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  • 7 Proven Benefits Of Pure Jojoba Oil

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    Jojoba oil is one of the most used natural ingredients in lotions and moisturizers. This amazing oil consists of a unique combination of vitamins and minerals making the oil suitable for ALL types of skin. It has a lot of cosmetic uses.

    1. Great makeup remover

    Jojoba oil has good cleansing properties and can be used as a makeup remover and facial cleanser. Simply soak a cotton ball in jojoba oil and rub it all over your face and lips. Remove rest of the oil from your face with a moist cotton ball afterwards.

    2. Hydrating body oil

    Apply the oil all over the body before bathing. It will hydrate your body, so you do not need to use a body lotion after your bath. Also, it can be used for body massage. It has a non-greasy texture and pleasant smell.

    3. Cracked heels remedy

    Regular use of the oil on the feet will keep them smooth and prevent cracked heels. Just apply the oil, put on the socks and leave them on for an hour. Your feet will become smooth and soft.

    4. Anti-stretch marks agent

    Jojoba oil also works as a prevention of stretch marks. Just rub a small amount of the oil twice a day. Also, it can be used to reduce existing stretch marks.

    5. Superb dry scalp moisturizer

    Jojoba oil is a great moisturizer for dry scalp and it will help you to get rid of the flaky and brittle skin. It’ll moisturize your scalp deep down to the pores and balance its pH level too. Also, it will keep the scalp healthy with its antibacterial abilities.

    6. Oily scalp remedy

    Jojoba oil helps to control the sebum excretion in the scalp. It regulates the flow of sebum in the clogged pores and balances the amount of oil in your hair.

    7. Easy hair colour preserver

    If you have coloured hair, apply this oil on your hair before going for a swim. The oil will prevent harmful chemicals from stripping your hair colour.

    However, there are a couple of things you need to be aware of while using Jojoba oil for the first time:

    1. Make sure that you are using 100% pure jojoba oil of the best quality – organic and cold-pressed.
    2. If the oil is contaminated with other oils or substances, it can make the skin problems even worse.
    3. The skin should absorb the oil completely. If this does not happen then stop using the oil.
    4. Use it sparingly.

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    Source by Milan Podhrazsky

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  • If You Want to Meet Japanese Women, Don’t Be a “Mama’s Boy”

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    Do some men really want a woman who reminds them of their mother?

    You know the type: “Mama’s boys” – the spoiled, pampered men who cannot seem to break away from their mothers. Don’t get me wrong, mothers are great – mine sure is – but there comes a point in your life when you have to grow up.

    Yet some Japanese men seem destined to be “Mama’s boys” for life. And why would they ever want to change? After all, for these men, their mothers have cooked their food, done their laundry, cleaned their rooms, and basically done everything for them their whole life. Who would want to give that up? So instead of growing up and learning to take care of themselves without Mom, they simply look for a woman who will do the same kinds of things for them.

    A friend of mine who was in a relationship with one of these mama’s boys saw the relationship end because her man’s mom did not think she (my friend) would make a proper wife, and since his mom did not approve, that was the end of the relationship. How crazy is that?

    Think of all the good women out there who are passed over because the man’s mom does not approve of her for some reason. Sometimes the man will never get married because his mom does not want to let them go, or because she thinks that no woman will ever be good enough for her precious son. So the man spends his life alone and in misery while his mom stays happy (and in control of his life). Men should always honor their mothers, but you shouldn’t sacrifice your entire life just to make your mother happy.

    After all, what kind of mother would want her son to give up his entire life and turn his back on romance, just because a woman does not meet up with her requirements? This is a selfish way for a mother to behave – if mothers really love their sons, they will raise them to be strong, independent, and able to build a life with a good woman. Instead of trying to rule and control her son’s romantic life, a mother should teach her son how to treat a woman properly so that he can go on to lead a productive and happy life.

    Yet some mothers have programmed their sons to the point that these poor men spend their entire life looking for a woman just like dear old Mom.

    Here is a news flash, mama’s boys: there is no other woman on Earth who is going to be just like your mother. If you want to have a real relationship with a woman – especially an independent, emotionally healthy woman – you need to let go of your maternal ties and find a way to stand on your own.

    Don’t you think it is kind of weird to want a woman like your mother anyway? I mean, imagine having sex with your mother! Not a pleasant thought. So why do you keep looking for a woman like your mother? Do you not want a woman who is her own person? After all, any good woman is going to run as far away from you as she can get if you keep comparing her to your mother.

    Being a mama’s boy might seem cute to a woman at first, but before long, any good woman is going to want a real man. Of course you want your mother and your wife to get along, but when you get married you need to always take the side of your wife, even to the point of defending her against your mother, if necessary. If you are not ready to let go of your mother and be a real man, then you probably are not ready for dating a real woman either.

    Some men who marry Japanese women – whether they’re “Mama’s boys” or not – might find that their mothers have concerns about whether the Japanese woman is going to “fit in” culturally with the rest of the family. For example, Japanese women might marry Indian men, Muslim men, African-American men, Jewish men – and sometimes parents from all of these cultures have their particular concerns about intermarriage. I’ve had some male Jewish friends who have married Japanese women, and it’s always interesting to me how often they’ve been able to persuade their Japanese brides to convert to Judaism – even though Japanese women are somewhat non-religious. (I think the men’s mothers might have something to do with influencing these Japanese women’s decisions.)

    Bottom line: no matter what culture you’re from or how intense of a “Mama’s boy” you are, when it comes time for you to find a woman (or many women!) to spend your life with, you need to do what is right for you. Ultimately, your mother will be happy for you.

    Have you known any “Mama’s boys” among your circle of male friends?

    Why do you think Japanese culture develops so many “Mama’s boys?”

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    Source by Xander S.

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  • Comparison Between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions and Beliefs!

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    The religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians were the dominating influence in the development of their culture. The Egyptian faith was based on a collection of ancient myths, nature worship, and innumerable deities. Sumerian lives were spent serving the gods in the form of man-made statues. There was no organized set of gods; each city-state had its own patrons, temples, and priest-kings. The Sumerians were probably the first to write down their beliefs, which were the inspiration for much of later Mesopotamian mythology, religion, and astrology. Sumerians believed that the universe consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a tin dome. While the Mesopotamian’s didn’t have anything quit to scale with the pyramids, they did use and build ziggurats for religious purposes.

    Both civilizations were centered on religion. Egypt believed in many gods. The gods Mesopotamia believed in tended to be absolute rulers to whom the people owed total devotion. In both civilizations religious leaders were given very high status and held in high regard. Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt are two religions that believed in monotheism. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia were polytheistic, that is, they believed their worlds were ruled by more than one god. Both civilizations believed that the gods created them. Both cultures also believed that they themselves were created for the purpose of serving their gods. Both worshipers took their names from the numerous gods and the cults that honored the deities, and priests in both religions were no special clothes, and made daily offering in the temples and held annual festivals open to public.

    Mesopotamian religion saw humans as the servants of the gods, who had to be appeased for protection. Egyptians believed that the gods created all humans but were also controlled by the principle of maat, or order. Unlike followers of Mesopotamian religion, the Egyptians had a strong belief in the afterlife, which they expressed by building elaborate tombs such as the pyramids. The Sumerian afterlife involved a descent into a gloomy netherworld to spend eternity in a wretched existence as a Gidim (ghost). Egyptians believed that their gods had created Egypt as a sort of refuge of good and order in a world filled with chaos and disorder. The major god for much of Mesopotamia was the sky god Enlil; later th e worship of Enlil was replaced by the worship of the Babylonian god Marduk. For Egyptians, Amen-Ra was the most powerful deity, chief of the pantheon. Statues of winged bulls were a protective symbol related to the god Sin Mesopotamia, while the ankh, a kind of cross with a loop at the top, was a prominent representation of life in ancient Egypt. The Enuma Elish tells the Mesopotamian story of creation and explains how Marduk became the chief of the gods. The Egyptian Book of the Dead was a guide for the dead, setting out magic spells and charms to be used to pass judgment in the afterlife. Ancient Nippur was the site of the chief temple to Enlil, while Babylon was the location of Marduk’s sanctuary. Thebes and the temple complex of Karnak were home to the worship of Amen- Ra. In the modern world the remains of these early religions can be seen in Egypt’s pyramids, tombs for the pharaohs, and in Mesopotamia’s ziggurats, temples to the gods. The New Year’s Festival was a major event in Mesopotamian religion, while Egypt’s most important festival was Opet. Because Egypt was the “gift of the Nile” and generally prosperous and harmonious, Egyptian gods tended to reflect a positive religion with an emphasis on a positive afterlife. In contrast, Mesopotamian religion was bleak and gloomy. Ancient Mesopotamian prayers demonstrate the lack of relationships with gods and goddesses who viewed humans with suspicion and frequently sent calamities to remind everyone of their humanity. Such was the message found in the Gilgamesh Epic.

    Although the religions of both civilizations shared many similarities, the differences were vast. The most notable ones are the importance and belief of afterlife and the relationship between Gods. Because of these differences, we believe, the civilizations were different because in early times, civilizations revolved around their beliefs and values but unfortunately, there was an end to these great civilizations.

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    Source by Tanha Kate

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  • The Science of Getting Rich, by Wallace Delois Wattles – Chapter 3

    Is Opportunity Monopolized?

    NO man is kept poor because opportunity has been taken away from him; because other people have monopolized the wealth, and have put a fence around it. You may be shut off from engaging in business in certain lines, but there are other channels open to you. Probably it would be hard for you to get control of any of the great railroad systems; that field is pretty well monopolized. But the electric railway business is still in its infancy, and offers plenty of scope for enterprise; and it will be but a very few years until traffic and transportation through the air will become a great industry, and in all its branches will give employment to hundreds of thousands, and perhaps to millions, of people. Why not turn your attention to the development of aerial transportation, instead of competing with J.J. Hill and others for a chance in the steam railway world?

    It is quite true that if you are a workman in the employ of the steel trust you have very little chance of becoming the owner of the plant in which you work; but it is also true that if you will commence to act in a Certain Way, you can soon leave the employ of the steel trust; you can buy a farm of from ten to forty acres, and engage in business as a producer of foodstuffs. There is great opportunity at this time for men who will live upon small tracts of land and cultivate the same intensively; such men will certainly get rich. You may say that it is impossible for you to get the land, but I am going to prove to you that it is not impossible, and that you can certainly get a farm if you will go to work in a Certain Way.

    At different periods the tide of opportunity sets in different directions, according to the needs of the whole, and the particular stage of social evolution which has been reached. At present, in America, it is setting toward agriculture and the allied industries and professions. To-day, opportunity is open before the factory worker in his line. It is open before the business man who supplies the farmer more than before the one who supplies the factory worker; and before the professional man who waits upon the farmer more than before the one who serves the working class.

    There is abundance of opportunity for the man who will go with the tide, instead of trying to swim against it.

    So the factory workers, either as individuals or as a class, are not deprived of opportunity. The workers are not being “kept down” by their masters; they are not being “ground” by the trusts and combinations of capital. As a class, they are where they are because they do not do things in a Certain Way. If the workers of America chose to do so, they could follow the example of their brothers in Belgium and other countries, and establish great department stores and co-operative industries; they could elect men of their own class to office, and pass laws favoring the development of such co-operative industries; and in a few years they could take peaceable possession of the industrial field.

    The working class may become the master class whenever they will begin to do things in a Certain Way; the law of wealth is the same for them as it is for all others. This they must learn; and they will remain where they are as long as they continue to do as they do. The individual worker, however, is not held down by the ignorance or the mental slothfulness of his class; he can follow the tide of opportunity to riches, and this book will tell him how.

    No one is kept in poverty by a shortness in the supply of riches; there is more than enough for all. A palace as large as the capitol at Washington might be built for every family on earth from the building material in the United States alone; and under intensive cultivation, this country would produce wool, cotton, linen, and silk enough to cloth each person in the world finer than Solomon was arrayed in all his glory; together with food enough to feed them all luxuriously.

    The visible supply is practically inexhaustible; and the invisible supply really IS inexhaustible.

    Everything you see on earth is made from one original substance, out of which all things proceed.

    New Forms are constantly being made, and older ones are dissolving; but all are shapes assumed by One Thing.

    There is no limit to the supply of Formless Stuff, or Original Substance. The universe is made out of it; but it was not all used in making the universe. The spaces in, through, and between the forms of the visible universe are permeated and filled with the Original Substance; with the formless Stuff; with the raw material of all things. Ten thousand times as much as has been made might still be made, and even then we should not have exhausted the supply of universal raw material.

    No man, therefore, is poor because nature is poor, or because there is not enough to go around.

    Nature is an inexhaustible storehouse of riches; the supply will never run short. Original Substance is alive with creative energy, and is constantly producing more forms. When the supply of building material is exhausted, more will be produced; when the soil is exhausted so that food stuffs and materials for clothing will no longer grow upon it, it will be renewed or more soil will be made. When all the gold and silver has been dug from the earth, if man is still in such a stage of social development that he needs gold and silver, more will produced from the Formless. The Formless Stuff responds to the needs of man; it will not let him be without any good thing.

    This is true of man collectively; the race as a whole is always abundantly rich, and if individuals are poor, it is because they do not follow the Certain Way of doing things which makes the individual man rich.

    The Formless Stuff is intelligent; it is stuff which thinks. It is alive, and is always impelled toward more life.

    It is the natural and inherent impulse of life to seek to live more; it is the nature of intelligence to enlarge itself, and of consciousness to seek to extend its boundaries and find fuller expression. The universe of forms has been made by Formless Living Substance, throwing itself into form in order to express itself more fully.

    The universe is a great Living Presence, always moving inherently toward more life and fuller functioning.

    Nature is formed for the advancement of life; its impelling motive is the increase of life. For this cause, everything which can possibly minister to life is bountifully provided; there can be no lack unless God is to contradict himself and nullify his own works.

    You are not kept poor by lack in the supply of riches; it is a fact which I shall demonstrate a little farther on that even the resources of the Formless Supply are at the command of the man or woman will act and think in a Certain Way.

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  • Study Abroad in South Africa

    A study abroad South Africa trip consists not only of a glimpse inside a spiritual and historical people, but also face-to-face encounters with some of the most beautiful wildlife and landscapes in the world.

    If you travel to South Africa for a summer abroad you can have a once-in-a-lifetime experience jumping from Bloukrans Bridge, the highest bungee jump destination in the world.

    If you happen to be in the South African town of Hermanus in the months of August to November for a semester abroad, you’ll be able to watch whales from some of the most amazing cliffs in Africa.

    From exotic cuisine to never-before-seen animals, South Africa will be one of the memorable study abroad experiences you will ever have.

    South Africa Study Abroad Programs

    Any university that you choose to visit in South Africa will be full of new and exciting things to do and see.

    For a diverse South African experience you can join a study abroad program at Stellenbosch University, which has one of the oldest international offices in South Africa.

    You can take classes in everything from African studies and political science to art and history, and you can meet a wide variety of international students from Rwanda, Australia, India, Greece and many other countries. Stellenbosch is considered an institution of excellence and encourages diverse ideas and perspective from its staff and students.

    If you’re interested in engineering, the environment, humanities, law and science, the University of Cape Town is the perfect place for you to gain undergraduate college credit. This is the oldest university in all of South Africa, and it prides itself in its top-rated teaching and research facilities.

    In fact, it’s home to over a quarter of all the highest-rated researchers in the world in their field of study. Most importantly, the University of Cape Town continually supports HIV/AIDS prevention and research in a wide variety of programs administered by students and staff.

    Another South African institution where you can find a good study abroad program is at North-West University.

    South Africa Transportation Options

    South Africa has the largest economy in all of Africa, so that means there are many modes of transportation individuals use to get from one place to the next.

    The most important mode of transportation in South Africa is the railway system, which is also the most advanced system in Africa. People use the railway every day because it connects all major cities through its network.

    South Africa is known for its luxury railway system called the Blue Train, which travels from the cities of Pretoria and Cape Town. The Blue Train features suites that have their own marble-tiled bathrooms and temperature controlled units, and there is a full-time staff of executive chefs, butlers and waiters to accommodate your needs.

    One of the easiest ways to travel in South Africa is to grab a taxi ride or ride a bus. Both taxi cab services and bus companies will take you anywhere that you need to go, and they can be found in all major cities in South Africa. If you would like to travel by taxi you can choose the Grab a Cab service, or you can choose a bus transportation service like Translux to tour the biggest cities in South Africa.

    Car rental is another option in South Africa. The Car Rental South Africa website offers services from companies such as Avis and Hertz, and allows you to compare prices to see which type of service you can afford.

    Finally, if you’re interested in mountain biking or cycling around the South African landscape, you can always take a tour from a company like Downhill Adventures or just rent a bike to explore the area on your own.

    Always follow health and safety guidelines no matter how you travel in South Africa, just to prepare yourself for the unexpected. In a foreign country halfway across the globe from your home, it’s better to be safe than sorry.

    Exchange Rates for South African Currency

    South African currency is known as the rand. The rand was introduced in 1961 when the Republic of South Africa was established.

    Here’s what you need to know about the rand:

    * Coins = 5c, 10c, 20c, 50c, R1, R2 and R5

    * Bills = 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200

    You can use a South African currency converter to compare other amounts of U.S. dollars against the rand.

    Best Locations to Visit in South Africa

    There are many must-see cities you should visit when you study in South Africa. Johannesburg, which is the largest city in South Africa, has an endless list of things to do.

    Art enthusiasts can visit the Johannesburg Art Gallery, which features Dutch, British, European and South African art, and outdoor explorers can visit the caves in Sterkfontein, where fossils dating back as far as 3.5 million years ago have been found.

    The second largest city in South Africa is Cape Town. This city has become a popular tourist destination because of its parks, beaches and other cultural attractions. The Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens features over 9,000 plants, and is a great place to relax and read a book.

    Adventure-seekers can go hiking or rock climbing on Table Mountain, and people looking for good food and shopping can visit the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront, where you can also take boat and helicopter rides.

    Finally, Durban, the third largest city in South Africa, is the perfect place to go on a self-guided tour and view beautiful beaches and ports. The Golden Mile is a long stretch of sand that you can walk along and see waterfront properties, fishing piers, restaurants, museums and skate parks.

    Durban is also home to uShaka Marine World, which has the fifth largest aquarium in the world and one of the largest ocean parks in Africa.

    Trish Smith is a copywriter for Green Student U, Student Finance Domain and Study Abroad Domain, websites that are devoted to providing college students with helpful environmental, financial and study abroad advice.

    Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/expert/Trish_Smith/143050

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  • Africa: A Case of Flogging Dead Horses?

    On pure economic indicators and all other indicators of development Africa is a dismal picture. Life expectancy has declined; mortality rates increase; heavily indebted, with over half the countries having debt that exceeds their GNP; GDP growth fallen; GDP per capita fallen as population growth gets out of control; health care is collapsing and so and so on. What has gone wrong with what after all is continent rich in mineral and material resources?

    Too much medicine

    There are several factors. First and probably most simple is that Africa after independence was not allowed to chart its own course. With good or bad intentions too many ” aid ” agencies have prescribed,subscribed and proscribed all sorts of panacea for Africa’s ” that they destroyed any capacity for that continent to solve its own ills. Africa has simply become a vegetable or as some say a huge experimental waste ground. This is really not far from the truth.

    Another factor is that African governments after independence failed to formulate clear mission and objectives that could be translated into sound economic policies. Corruption and mismanagement took hold of almost every strata of society. This was further assisted by the aid agencies. Marginal benefits were put as further evidence for aid while government excesses on grand scale were overlooked.

    For political reasons, Western governments supported dictatorships and turned a blind eye to corruption and mismanagement. Cold war politics meant that the major powers had to have a balance not only in armaments but also in allies. The drive to prevent communist influence in Africa meant keeping regimes in power that supported Western interests.

    All too often these regimes were despots and perpetrators of the most sadist human rights abuses. Moreover aid agencies ignored every basic economic or social criteria for development assistance in favor of this higher political goal. This problem was further complicated by the fact that often the aid agencies will differ with their own governments. Thus vast sums were squandered on irrelevant constructions, large sums made their way into private accounts without so much as a whisper. What I call the “guilt” factor came in handy when others dare to complain of such corruption.

    The “guilt” factor argument is” oh well, we are giving and that is the most important thing. Whatever, the President choose to do with it is his business. After all they are an independent and sovereign nation”.

    The result is that today despite several billions poured, Africa is still underdeveloped and conditions are even worse than when they were at independence. My argument seems to point to the thesis that aid can work. Yes, I believe aid can work to alleviate poverty or change the society overnight. However, it cannot bring about economic development.

    Rather it should be used to ease the pain of the unpleasant side effects of harsh monetary and fiscal policy which is precisely what was needed at this point. For example due to the cyclical nature of the markets that face Africa main exports, there often severe variations in earnings. These can be very damaging especially given the fact that some countries depend on just one commodity. What aid should do is to bridge the gap between these shortfalls in earnings.

    Poverty can never be eradicated in a country; the aim should be to distribute wealth in a manner that ensures that the gap between the rich and the poor does not create social tensions.

    Counter-productive

    What “Aid” did to Africa was to exacerbate and indeed encourage irresponsible fiscal and monetary policy on the part of governments. There was some positive aspects of aid, but these were at the margin and as far as the big picture is concerned, too insignificant to alter the present argument. Look at how much money Norway has pumped into Tanzania and what condition that country is in today!

    I seem to have pointed the blame at the aid agencies and the Africa politicians. My belief is that the development agencies had good intentions. The explanation for their failures stems from the fact that the Africans that they encountered were not educated enough to challenge their assumption. Thus very soon these agencies began to get the view that the African does not know what is good for them. In effect their mission was not simply to give aid, but to make decisions for them!

    Bad Governments

    To say that “people deserve the government they get” is a little too harsh on Africans. In many parts of Africa, after independence there were too few university graduates or technocrats to replace the white administrators. Political rhetoric and nationalism prevented any form of expatriates assistance from former colonial administrators. Those that saw themselves in power had got there on a platform of”we can do it ourselves”. Thus any notion of keeping the very people you have been fighting against was nonsensical. The truth was many nations could not” do it themselves”.

    Governments ministers and officials with half-baked educational background suddenly saw themselves in power. They had little in the way of program or policy document. What matters was the trappings that the office brought and the personal gains one could get out of the office. Of course there some educated people. However, these quickly fell out with the government or sacrificed their principles for survival. The result of course was gross mismanagement, incompetence, corruption, graft on a scale that saw millions of Africans reduced to the lowest stage of survival.

    Is it any wonder that if things have to change, we have to start with ensuring well educated take the reins of power. There is little doubt that part of the success of the Asian countries lies in pool of well educated politicians and planners in the 1960s. These individuals not only set a strategic orientation for their nations, but they continuously surveyed their environments to see new opportunities.

    Education became a central plank of development policy. Not so in Africa- resources geared for such efforts were not used- Bad economic planning could be partly explained by such poorly educated civil servants. Take the case of monetary policy. At independence, most African countries inherit a monetary system based on the English pound, the French Franc or the Portuguese escudo. However in time nationalistic pride got in the way of financial practicalities and one country after another cut itself from the backing European currency and began turning out a spectacular array of non-convertible currencies. As one commentator note ” If nothing else the President got a chance to put their picture on the note”. And in the early and late sixties, since Presidents were short- lived it was inevitable that the currencies were too.

    Many of these currencies were worthless and not even accepted in neighboring countries or in the international banking system for that matter. As the currency weakened, the general response was to print more money. In Nigeria, between 1975-1977 the money supply increased by 180%. And this was pretty much the case elsewhere.

    As money supplies rose, inflation soared and in time rates of over 100% were not uncommon. In early post independence period as the public discontent grew, the greater the social control that was exerted by leaders. The greater the national debt, the greater the reliance grew of foreign grants to keep regimes in power.

    Tribalism

    Tribalism has been put forward by many writers as the root of Africa’s problems. Tribalism was made to look exclusively African. Events in the former Yugoslavia have shown that tribalism and ethnicity are not African preserves. Colonialism brought ethnic groups(tribes if you refer to Africa) that had nothing to hold them together except force and a colonial policy of divide and rule.

    When people talk about tribal problems in Africa, I put the question on how they would feel, because of some historical error, you had to live with people that you have no desire to. The second World War in Europe created a Europe that fell into the East(Communist Bloc) and West(Capitalist Bloc). The countries of the East under Soviet hegemony manage to hold the different diverse groups found within these countries. As the Empire collapse, so has the desire for self government risen or some form of regional autonomy.

    Yugoslavia has even manage to coin a new vocabulary, -“Ethnic cleansing”. What is very African about Tribalism is the way Africans choose to solve the problem. But even these atrocities cannot match the systematic methods of say Hitler or present day”Hitler’s” in Bosnia and Croatia.

    More to the point, economically, tribalism in some countries has crippled the economy by diverting resources to unproductive efforts. It has also meant in some places governments did not capitalize on their best talents simply because they belong to the wrong group. Vast numbers of refugees have been created which has meant whole populations have been displaced, their economic productivity unrealized.

    The Future

    The collapse of the old order has created new economic partnerships, shift resources and emphasis, which has pushed Africa further into economic uncertainty and regression. The fall of Communism has opened up new areas in the world that are far more immediately attractive than Africa for investment purposes.

    Eastern Europe provide valuable investment opportunities that are fast attracting capital. One of the legacies of the Communist era are the large numbers of scientist. These are fast becoming partners with establish Western companies for research into new fields.

    Western Governments face constituencies that are increasingly frustrated with their governments wasting money on corrupt and hopeless leaders.

    This is combined with the fact that domestic social problems are getting acute. Today Europe faces difficult social problems. Unemployment, lack of growth and increasing refugee problems from Eastern Europe. Indeed many experts believe that unemployment will become a more structural problem. What this indicates is that social services budget will become bigger. These factors make it all the more difficult for governments in the West to hand over large sums as they had done in the past. Finally, we see a new economic phenomenon or to be more precise, trade phenomenon-trade blocs.

    lready in place is the European Community EC. The North Americans are working out with Mexico -NAFTA North American Free Trade Area. In South East Asia,we see increasing Japans activity in the region. This is made doubly so with the expanding Chinese economy. It is my belief that as Japan makes efforts to address her war past and apologize, this will clear the way for some kind of trade area.

    Given this new world order, what does the future hold for Africa. It is my belief that some parts may never move from the traditional society that describe earlier on. War, famine and disease are the main preoccupation that any notion of social investment is ridiculous. The leadership is some cases actually perpetuate the situation thus guaranteeing their hold on power. However, there are a few that have the potential for spectacular development. Most impressive is Botswana. Botswana apart from South Africa is the fastest growing economy in Black Africa. This economy is characterize by a work ethic, skilled and an industrious labor force.

    Namibia is also an impressive case. However that country has only been independent since 1990. Nevertheless its institutions and policies are on the right track.

    The other group is lead by Kenya, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Gabon and to some extent Senegal and Zaire. There is another group that have all the ingredients but have yet to make any social investments. Some of these are actually at the bottom of UN list of poor quality of life. This group is led by Sierra Leone, followed by Uganda and Angola.

    Multinational Corporations

    In an increasingly global economic environment the role of the Multinational Enterprise (MNE), more commonly known as Multinational Corporations (MNCs), in fostering economic development is going to become increasingly important. Capital that is needed for domestic investment in the poor countries will come largely from investment by these organisations.

    Western governments are going to find it increasingly hard to justify flows to African governments. In another respect there will be increasing demand in African countries that the private sector plays a more central role. These will need the resources and expertise of MNCs. This will be helped by the fact Aid agencies favor joint ventures between foreign firms and local companies as a viable path to development.

    MNEs have much to offer the region in terms of capital, technology, innovation, managerial expertise, and access to world markets. It is important that the investment by MNEs is direct and not portfolio, for direct investment brings more than just financial resources. Further, it is important that MNEs source most of the materials locally so as to develop local skills and enterprises.

    It has been suggested that the target sectors for encouragement of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) are the

    (a) wood and paper products, (linked to forestry)

    (b) textiles and clothing, (linked to textile fibers) and

    c) metal products or food processing( linked to the extractive sector).

    The objectives for African governments is to both attract the downstream diversification of multinationals already in the relevant extractive sector, and new the investment of multinationals whose operations in the more develop countries are tending to move downstream and may wish to relocate what for them are now upstream activities.

    Dead Horses?

    Africa is not like flogging dead horses. African countries are on a life support machine or as the world bank puts it, its in a state of transition. It needs it own doctors and experts to bring her back to life. To cure the ills of Africa is to understand its environment and no one can better Africa except Africans. The bottom line is you can take the horse to the stream but it she does not want to drink there is not much you can do. In the meantime you have wasted time. Africa is rich in mineral resources and has the potential for development.

    It has the market potential to provide people in the industrialized countries with employment through its demand for unmet needs.

    The growth potentials of the developed world are limited but in Africa there is a huge demand for food, clothing, shelter and consumer goods. What is needed as Philip Kotler points out is that the west puts purchasing power in the hands of these consumers. If this is not done the west will be saddled with over capacity and slow growth. On the other hand, there is body of opinion that believes that modernization goes through stages and that Africa is going through the same process. As such trying to speed up the process by interfering with its dynamics, merely causes cross-cultural and domestic conflicts. Evidence from South East Asian countries however indicates that this process does not necessarily have to follow a linear path. With the right set of policies, governments can make rapid development or even a leap.

    What is urgently needed are several things. In the first place governments should try to recruit their well educated citizens who arc presently abroad. These individuals could be put in special ministries responsible for charting a future for the country. This stems from the fact that Africans that are capable of generating the kinds of ideas and policies that it would take to turn what Africa is today into a modern society or at least developing nations are all abroad. We must also encourage the African entrepreneur as in many parts of South East Asia.

    What is needed in Africa is a system that propels the right people to power. Leaders that could respond to the needs of their peoples. Africa needs leaders that have the foresight for long-term constructive economic and industrial policy. Above all its needs leaders that recognized the need for social economic investments, without them, no sound economic or industrial policy will yield positive results.

    Francis Stevens George

    December 1993

    Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/8060638

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  • Why Did China Seek Friends in Africa in the 1950s

    In the 1950s, fascination, confusion, and even alarm are adjec-tives that best described the reaction of many political observers to the Chinese seeking friends and allies in Africa. An executive editor of the New York Times, Mr. Seymour Freidin, wrote:

    Red Chinese drive into Africa involves a long range effort to dominate the continent totally and populate it with Chinese.

    Mr. Seymour’s sentiments were not uncommon at the time. There was a great deal of confusion as to what the Chinese were actually up to. This was due in large part to the inconsistent nature of policies pursued by the Chinese in those early years. This was exemplified in the so-called split-level or dual diplomacy. Simply put, this was the pursuit of the “United Front From Above” (government-to-government relations), and the “United Front From Below” (support for wars of national liberation). In practice, this meant the Chinese would support “revolutionary” opposition groups while at the same time supporting the legitimate government of an African country. I take this up in Chapter 3.

    To the question of this chapter, why Africa? The simple answer is ideology, manifested in both domestic Chinese politics and in her international relations. In particular, China’s emerging conflict with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the United States of America (USA) were to play a role in the Chinese drive into Africa. I will deal with the ideological factors in the next section.

    First, I would like to briefly point to historical reasons which some Chinese leaders used as a primary argument for their interest in Africa. For example, they pointed to the fact that in October 1415, Chinese explorer and Admiral Zheng He reached the eastern coast of Africa and sent the first of two giraffes as gifts to the Chinese Yongle Emperor. Zheng brought gifts and granted titles from the Ming emperor to the local rulers, with the aim of establishing a large number of tributary states. Indeed, it is worth noting that China and Africa have a history of trade relations, sometimes through third parties, dating back as far as 202 BC and AD 220.

    I will now deal with the domestic factors and the ideological disputes with the United States and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

    DOMESTIC INFLUENCES ON CHINA’S DRIVE INTO AFRICA

    At the Eighth Congress of the Chinese Communist party in 1956, it was clear the new China had been making a determined effort to expand her influence in the outside world, particularly in the “vast intermediate areas” of Africa, Asia and Latin America. In Chinese eyes, the countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America remain the potential field for revolutions of the Chinese type. This was one area in which they felt a special ideological leadership to offer. Ten years later, in 1965, this belief was exemplified by Lin Biao’s celebrated thesis entitled “Long Live the victory of the People’s war”. His core argument was that;

    Comrade Mao’s theory of the estab-lishment of rural revolutionary base areas and the encirclement of the cities from the countryside is of outstanding and universal importance for the present revolutionary struggles of all the oppressed nations and peoples, particularly, those in Africa.

    Furthermore, The CCP claimed that it was waging a class struggle in defense of Maoism, the true revolutionary, against allies of Nikita Khrushchev in the CCP-the so-called allied forces of “reaction”- and imperialism and revisionism in the world at large. The party described its actions as a ‘sharp class struggle’ and the ‘socialist education’ against “renascent bourgeois ideology, bureaucratic degeneration, and anti-party elements” in the Chinese Communist party (CCP).

    If Mao was to gain complete control over his enemies and prove his ideological position correct, China had to find allies abroad to form the broadest possible United Front for a “struggle” against the “corrupting revisionist influence” of Russia and the imperialist drive of the United States of America. As Mao, not Khrushchev was the true revolutionary; the drive into Africa was an attempt to assert China’s ideological supremacy over USSR.

    It is fascinating and quite remarkable in my view to see that China’s leaders in the late 1950s and 1960s did seriously consider Africa would be of key importance in realpolitik. They were consumed by the belief that Africa was both the center of the anti-colonial struggle and the center for the East and West to fight for control of the “intermediate zone”.

    The theory of the “intermediate Zone” is an interesting one as it formed the foundation for this belief. Introduced by Mao in the late 1940s, the theory claimed that between the United States and the Soviet Union exist a vast “intermediate zone” mainly composed of “oppressed” non-Western countries, including China.

    Before the “imperialist” United States of America could attack the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, they first had to control the intermediate zone, according to Mao. This then made Asia and Africa the central arena of the Cold War. When Mao and the Chinese Communist Party seized political power in China, they immediately proclaimed revolutionary China as a natural ally of the “oppressed peoples” in the “intermediate zone”. They saw themselves as champions that held the banner of anti-imperialism and anti colonialism, challenging the United States of America and other Western imperialist/colonial powers.

    The belief, that they [The Chinese] were the flag bearers of the oppressed, was fostered by the fact that they made comparisons to key stages in Chinese revolutionary history to the situation in most of Africa during the years of decolonization. The implication was that the ‘unfolding African revolution’ would pass through similar stages. It was noted by Chinese leaders that some parts of Africa were going through similar experiences that China went through sixty years earlier during the Boxer uprising.

    Some events for the independence struggle in Africa were likened to those which occurred in the Hsin-Hai Revolution of 1911, while others resemble what happened around the May 4th incident of 1919.

    All this led some Chinese leaders to have a vision of a “third force”-drawn of nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America against the “double hegemony” of the nuclear giants-The United States of America and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. As we would later see, it was no surprise that the Chinese felt compelled to support various rebel and “freedom fighters” across Africa.

    This support was based on a genuine desire to “free” the Afri-cans from what the Chinese saw as imperialism and hegemony. To this day, the Chinese still hold this desire, hence their lack of interference in African affairs.

    INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCES ON CHINA’S DRIVE INTO AFRICA

    It was a fact that Communist China, after its birth in 1949, faced a hostile external environment. Between the years 1952 and 1961, it was notably her unresolved territorial conflict with the United States of America over Taiwan (Republic of China-ROC), denial of the Chinese seat at the United Nations, and China’s concern with American alliances and bases in Asia.

    The United States Government had embarked on a policy of isolating the Communist throughout the world at that time. The Truman administration in July 1950 had extended full diplomatic recognition and protection to Taiwan and proceeded to organize military alliances with other Asian powers surrounding China. Economic and commercial embargo had already been placed on activities with China.

    The United States had further masterminded Operation Van-guard designed to make Taiwan attractive to African countries some of whom were gaining their independence. Operation Vanguard, launched in 1960, saw Taiwan begin to dispatch agricultural missions to assist emerging independent states in Africa with modernizing their agricultural production and to garner support for the Taiwan’s (ROC) representation in the United Nations. At one time, the number of Taiwan’s agricultural specialists in Africa exceeded 1,200. The ROC-Africa Technical Cooperation Committee was established in 1962 to further expand the program.

    Taiwan, with the support of the United States had the Chinese seat in the United Nations and enjoyed support among the allies of the United States, including many African countries. China was quick to see that with the support of these African countries in the United Nations, the balance could possibly sway in her favor.

    China’s ideological battle with the USSR was also to lead her to seek friends in Africa. I already discussed the CCP’s drive to establish their communist credentials in the “intermediate areas”. As the Sino-Soviet split became more pronounced, so did their divergent views on Africa.

    The Chinese saw Africa as an opportunity to get on the International stage and break out of the United States of America isolation. The Soviets on the other hand, saw Africa as a means to expand their industrial strength and spread Soviet propaganda. These two distinct views were to manifest themselves after the Bandung Conference in 1955.

    Thus, tensions with the United States and ideological conflict with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were key factors in China’s drive into Africa. China’s policies and actions were to be heavily influenced by these factors as we will later see in this work.

    The next chapter looks at where and how Sino-African relations started.

    The following is the First Chapter of my book: China and Africa Love Affair

    Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/expert/Francis_Stevens_George/1723405

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  • Relocating to South Africa – Immigration Information

    Whilst many foreigners dream of relocating or moving to South Africa, many foreigners are actually taking a chance and moving their families and lives to our beautiful country. As this process can often be difficult and tedious, more so if you are not correctly informed prior to your immigration process, there are many aspects of relocating to South Africa that is required to be thought through before the new adventure can begin.

    Many foreigners only realize the amount of matters that have to be sorted through and arranged once they arrived in our stunning country. There is no need to stress, if all information is at least known before arriving, this will save you many nights of worry and many more days to enjoy our sunshine, beaches, mountains and beautiful flora and fauna with yourself or your family.

    Transferring money, bank accounts, exchange control, taxation and investments information

    – Transferring Money into South Africa For a foreigner wanting to reside in South Africa, or even if a foreigner wants to invest in the country in one way or another, an agent or consultancy is always the best to approach for the finer details regarding best exchange rates when transferring money, investments, transferring of money and tax implications.

    – Bank Accounts in South Africa Opening up of bank accounts is a simple process, provided the correct documentation is supplied to the relevant consultant. If a foreigner wants to obtain a personal/individual bank account (while on a visitors visa), a “non-resident” account can be opened for that person. Whilst these accounts can have all the features of normal banking account, the “non-resident” accounts are restrictive in as much as they cannot generally receive deposits in Rands. Once on a temporary residence permits, these accounts are changed to “resident” accounts. It is best to speak to a Bank consultant to get the best possible service and views.

    The foreigner’s closed corporation can obtain a business account, there would be no currency restrictions in terms of Rand deposits, as the closed corporation is viewed as a legal identity in its own right and in the foreigner’s case, is incorporated in South Africa. To receive the best service and required documentation, speak to a banking consultant or an agency that can assist with this nature of services.

    – Exchange Control Upon transferring money to South a foreigner will be confronted with the exchange control regulations in South Africa.

    South African Exchange Control Regulations are a set of laws controlling the in and outflow of money in South Africa. An authorised dealer in every major South African bank are required to make sure on behalf of the Reserve Bank that incoming and outgoing money complies with the regulations.

    A foreigner can transfer an unlimited amount of money into South Africa. As long as the foreigner transfers the capital via a bank within South Africa, it will get registered with the Reserve Bank.

    There are limitations in place when it comes to transferring capital out of South Africa. The rules and limitations for a foreigner depend on the status for exchange control purposes when the person arrives in South Africa. The Reserve Bank distinguishes between foreign nationals, temporary residents, immigrants and South African citizens.

    Since the status of people relocating to South Africa varies according to the kind of permit they receive, individual advice is necessary.

    It should be noted that it is not correct that foreigners relocating to South Africa cannot take any of the money they brought into the country out again. There are rules and regulations, but they do not permit the retransfer of capital introduced into South Africa.

    – Taxation South Africa has a residence based tax system, which means that all tax residents are taxed on their worldwide income, irrespective of where it was earned.

    Even in case that a foreigner is not classified as a tax resident in South Africa from the start, the foreigner will have to pay tax on income generated from a source within South Africa.

    It is important that a person takes care to that he or she is compliant with both Revenue Services, the one in South Africa and the one in his/her home country. South Africa has signed double tax agreement with many countries to avoid that a person pays tax for the same income in two countries at the same time.

    A foreigner should seek expert advice to determine from when they will be classified as a tax resident in South Africa and what consequences this status will have on your tax situation.

    – Investments South Africa has always welcomed foreigners who invest in our country. For those foreigners who know only limited information on investment options, this matter should be dealt with by an expert financial controller or agency that can assist with this service. Investment in this country is on a large scale and many foreigners, who immigrate to South Africa, do not receive the best service, exchange rates, etc – therefore, causing losses, instead of financial gain. With a mixture of different opportunities and jurisdictions, it can prove to be a multitude of choices and decision to make.

    Buying Property in South Africa

    There are many opportunities to buy a property in South Africa, for a holiday home or for indefinite periods – there is an extensive market for those on the look out for the best possible properties that South Africa has to offer. Although the market is aimed at the “Seller” and the ‘Seller’s” needs, there are those agents who are on the side of the buyer (foreigner). These agents are the best to speak with concerning purchasing a property in South Africa, as they will always ask the right questions, find the best possible prices, areas, etc for the foreigner and family.

    Prospective foreign buyers face a number of matters that are unique to those purchasing property abroad, some matters are: correct financing, exchange control matters, decreased knowledge of geographical areas, difference in buying method from abroad. It is best for the foreigner to find an agent or South African company who can assist with these matters and others, through the entire process, as to not leave the foreigner with questions unanswered but, to enable the foreigner to enjoy their time in South Africa and see their path leading to their new beginning growing.

    School and Employment in South Africa

    With all families, foreign or South African, finding the right school and employment in the country, if needed, is two of the most important aspects of relocating to another country.

    In South Africa, there are many educational institutions, whereby children of foreigners (after obtaining a study permit for that school) spend most of the days. It is always important to find a school that has many of the activities that the child enjoys, some schools focus on sports activities and some schools focus on recreational activities, there are many schools which have a medium with both kinds of activities offered to their students.

    South Africa offers many wonderful benefits to reside in, with its increasingly first-world infrastructure and its growing influence in the international market, career aspirations can constantly be fulfilled. If a foreigner would like to work in South Africa, the necessary work permit would need to be obtained in order for the foreigner to work legally in the country. It is best to speak with an immigration agency in order to find out what work permit would be best suited to the foreigner in question.

    Permits for residence in South Africa

    In order for a foreigner to reside legally in the country, irrespective of the visitor’s visa obtained either at the border when entering the country, or before arrival from the relevant Embassy, the foreigner would need to reside in South Africa on a valid permit constantly in order to prevent fines incurring, deportation back to the country of origin or imprisonment.

    There are many different permits and these are issued at the discretion of the Department of Home Affairs to the foreigners who qualify for these appropriate permits.

    – Visitor’s Extension Permit (holiday/visit) A visitors extension permit is issued to a foreigner only once in succession (after initial issuance of visitors visa when arriving in South Africa), therefore, the maximum stay that a foreigner can reside in South Africa on a visitors permit/visa is 6 months (160 days), this is dependent on the country of origin’s initial visitors permit, as many countries issue the visitors visa under 90 days, etc. Once the 6 months has come to an end, the foreigner would need to leave the country, or apply for a temporary residence permit (if the foreigner qualifies for a specific permit).

    In order to receive a visitors visa at the border (i.e. airport), the foreigner who is entering South Africa is required to show a return ticket to the country of origin within 3 months (90 days) after arrival, if not, the officials at the borders are able to deny entry into South Africa.

    – Study permit In South Africa, a foreigner who would like to study in an educational institution would require a South African study permit (temporary residency). There are 2 options for a study permit for the respective foreigner(s):

    The first option would be for foreign families immigrating to South African with children from the age 6 to 16 (as all children from the age of 6 to 16 are required by law to attend schooling, therefore, requiring a South African study permit). If a child is young enough to attend crèche, pre-school, etc, provision may be made by the Department to issue a study permit to the child(ren), this is done with their own discretion. These permits are issued to the length of the schooling period, the maximum period length of a study permit is 3 years and these permits can be extended a number of times.

    The second option would be for individual (stand alone) foreigners wishing to continue their studies in South Africa (e.g. university, college, etc). These study permits are issued by the Department of Home Affairs to the applicant who has been “provisionally accepted” to a South African Registered Educational Institution. These study permits are issued to the length of the course; this is done with the Department’s discretion and can be extended is necessary.

    A person (foreign student), over the age of 16 years is able to conduct work for 20 hours per week during their term (semester) or when the workplace is a learning institution on a South African study permit.

    – Business Permits Business permits are issued to foreigners who wish to operate a business in South Africa, whether it be closed corporations, sole proprietors, etc. These permits are issued to those foreigners who wish to invest in an already established business or establishing a new business.

    In order to qualify for a business permit, the foreigner must submit proof stating that they wish to invest or have already invested an amount of (a) ZAR 2.5 million in cash in foreign currency, (b), a capital contribution of at least ZAR 2.5 million or (c) at least ZAR 2.5 million in cash in foreign currency and a capital contribution of ZAR 500,000 into the book value of the business in question, along with other substantial documentation proof (i.e. business plan).

    If a foreigner wishes to invest less than ZAR 2.5 million into the book value of the business, a recommendation letter (waiver) is required by the Department of Home Affairs, these recommendation letters are issued by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) to waiver the capitalized requirement. These letters are also issued for specific industries, e.g. Tourism industry (guest houses), information and communications technologies and others.

    Business permits are issued usually for 24 months, but can be issued for up to 5 years, this is at the Department’s discretion. Before the expiry of this permit, the same can be extended.

    Permanent Residency can be applied for based on the Business permit category, based on self-employed applicants who invest more than ZAR 2.5 million into the book value of the business. If a foreigner’s investment is less than the prescribed amount, waiting on the outcome of the waiver application is required to be done before permanent residence can be applied for.

    For foreigners wishing to operate a business in South Africa, the best option would be to seek advice from an established Immigration company to receive the correct advice and protocol to be established to avoid future problems if done personally.

    – Retired Permits A South African retired permit is issued to a foreigner who wishes to reside in South Africa for 6 months or longer, there are no age minimum or maximum requirements for this permit category.

    A foreigner wishing to retire in South Africa and obtain a retired permit must be able to prove the following financials (a) ZAR 20,000 per person, per month for a maximum period of 48 months (four years) through cash assets, capital (bank statements), pensions, actual rental income or investment interest income for a temporary residency application or (b) ZAR 20,000 per month – life-long guaranteed income through pensions, actual rental income or investment interest income for a permanent residence application.

    If a foreigner who would like to apply for permanent residence based on retired category and has not been married/in a permanent relationship for 5 years or longer, the above ZAR 20,000 per month, would be per person, resulting in the foreigners submitting proof of ZAR 20,000 per month, per person, each.

    The retired person’s temporary residence permit is issued for a period of 6 months to 48 months (maximum period); the period on the retired permit is dependent on the financial income provided.

    If a person would like to obtain a retired temporary residence permit, this retired permit only does not permit the holder to work in South Africa. A work endorsement would be required in order for the foreigner to conduct work. If a work endorsement is endorsed with the retired permit, this endorsement is specific, therefore, not allowing the holder to work at any establishment, but for the company employing the foreigner at that time.

    No holder of a temporary residence retired permit is able to operate a business or study in South Africa.

    – Life-Partner / Spousal permits All foreigners require a permit to reside legally in South Africa, whereby a spouse (husband or wife) or a life-partner (permanent relationship) of a South African citizen/permanent resident holder would need to apply for a spousal or a life-partner permit. A temporary residence permit can be issued to a foreign spouse/life-partner who has been married/permanent relationship to a South African for less than 5 years, but in turn, permanent residence can only be applied for once the couple have been married/permanent relationship for 5 years or more and can prove this time together.

    It would be the more valuable option to apply for temporary residence first (whether married/permanent relationship for more or less than 5 years), as permanent residence takes approximately 18 months (these timescales are not guaranteed), therefore the foreign spouse/life-partner would be legal to reside in South Africa, whether applying for permanent residence or not.

    It is very beneficial to obtain a South African spousal or life-partner temporary residence permit, as foreigners who are holders of these permits are able to work, operate a business or study in South Africa with the correct endorsement. This permit negates the need for work permits and business permits to be applied for and all the vast number of documentation that is required. While these spousal or life-partner permit endorsements require only a few additional documents to enable the foreigner to work/operate a business or study in South Africa.

    If a foreigner will be conducting work, operating a business or studying in South Africa, it is best to know exactly what endorsement or company to work for, business plans or educational institution, as these endorsements are specific. Therefore, the name of employer/business or educational institution will be mentioned on the permit, not allowing the foreigner work for another company, operating a different business or studying with a different institution, without re-applying (with a new application) for a new specific endorsement on the spousal or life-partner permit.

    The length of the temporary residence permit is issued by the Department of Home Affairs at their discretion and is issued for a period between 1 – 3 years. The South African spousal or life-partner permits can be extended at the end of their validity, provided that the marriage certificate or proof of relationship is submitted with the extension application.

    – Relatives Permit While many foreigners who reside in South Africa do not have direct family in the country, there are foreigners who do have family (direct – 1st and 2nd kinship) residing permanently (obtained permanent residence) or are South African citizens in the country, these foreigners may apply for a relatives permit.

    For temporary residency, the following lines of kinship may apply for temporary residency, parents, children, siblings. In order to apply for permanent residence, only parents and children are permitted to apply under this category.

    The temporary residence permits are usually issued for a period of 1 – 3 years, these permits can be extended if necessary provided the documentation is supplied. Conducting work, operating a business or studying in South Africa is not permitted for the holders of this permit.

    – Work permit In order for a foreigner to work in South Africa, a work permit is required to be obtained from the Department of Home Affairs. Obtaining a work permit can seem daunting and a complex process as foreigners often are informed by potential employers that they cannot employ them until a work permit is in place, this is not necessarily correct, as many immigration companies may contact the prospective employer and communicate the realities regarding work permit matters.

    There are four types of work permit categories for foreigners wishing to conduct work in South Africa:

    1. General Work permit – a foreigner wishing to apply for a General Work permit is required to provide a conditional offer of employment from a South African based employer amongst other documentation (i.e. advertisement, etc). This work permit is also required to include confirmation that the foreigner who is applying for this permit possesses the necessary qualifications, certified and approved by the South Africa Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and confirmation of the relevant work experience.

    These permits are issued by the Department for a period of 1 – 5 years. A person, who has been residing in South Africa on a General Work permit for 5 years or longer, may apply for permanent residency thereafter.

    2. Quota Work permit – a foreigner who falls within a certain professional criteria in which skills are considered scarce within South Africa are able to apply for a Quota Work permit. No employer is required for this permit to be applied for. This work permit is also required to include confirmation that the foreigner who is applying for this permit possesses the necessary qualifications, certified and approved by the South Africa Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and confirmation that the applicant has at least 5 years of relevant working experience in the appropriate field.

    These permits are also issued by the Department for a period of 3 – 5 years. If a foreigner enters the country on a Quota work permit, the holder must submit confirmation of having secured employment within a specific category within 90 days of arrival (i.e. the Quota Work List issued by the Department of Home Affairs). After a foreigner receives a Quota Work Permit, while in South Africa, this foreigner is required to confirm employment in the specific category within 90 days of receiving the permit; thereafter a General Work permit is applied for to the Department of Home Affairs.

    3. Exceptional/Extraordinary Skills permit – a foreigner who possesses exceptional skills may obtain this temporary residence permit. In order for a foreigner to qualify for this permit, the application for an Exceptional Skills permit must be accompanied by letters from foreign or South African organs of state or from an established South African academic, cultural, business body confirming the exceptional skills of the applicant. With these letters, any proof which substantiates the claim to exceptional skills/qualifications must be submitted, such as testimonials from former employers, publications or dissertations are required.

    This exceptional skills permit is issued for a period of 1 – 5 years, at the Department’s discretion concerning the exceptional skills. Permanent Residency is permitted to be applied for under this category.

    4. Intra-Company Transfer permits – a foreigner who is being relocated from a branch in the country of origin to a sister branch, subsidiary or affiliate in South Africa. The holders of these permits are seen as a temporary recruitment options for the employer by the Department of Home Affairs; therefore, these permits will only be issued for a maximum period of 2 years.

    – Corporate Permit A Corporate permit is seen as a thread of a work permit, but is issued by the Department of Home Affairs to South African based companies (corporates) who wish to employ foreigners who may take up employment for the applicant for a limited time. These permits also offer these companies the possibility to employ great numbers of employees abroad.

    Due to South Africa’s ever growing market, the corporate permit enables the companies, an excellent way to manage their human resources, as each application is aimed at an individual work permit for a predetermined number of required foreign employees, with this application, having to submit detailed job descriptions, specific requirements and the proposed remuneration in respect of each employee.

    These are detailed and lengthy applications that require vast amounts of attention to detail. The Department issues corporate permits for a maximum period of 5 years. In order for an extension to be considered, the corporate companies have to appeal to the Department of Labour and Department of Trade and Industry that the positions they require are still in shortage in South Africa.

    There are a number of other permits that can be applied for, if the foreigner qualifies, but the most common South African permit options would be the above.

    With South Africa’s ever growing economy and population, it comes as no surprise that the matters, such as money matters, taxation, schooling, properties and permits, etc are required to be looked over, dealt with and knowledge increased prior to arrival in order for the foreigner to make the best possible decisions to make their new lives easier and run efficiently for themselves and their families.

    Claire Roodman claire@intergate-immigration.com http://www.intergate-immigration.com

    Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/2753956

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